A History of Synthetic Grass

A History of Synthetic Grass AstroTurf is a brand of artificial turf or synthetic grass. James Faria and Robert Wright of Monsanto Industries co-invented Astroturf. A patent for astroturf was filed for on December 25, 1965, and issued by the USPTO on July 25, 1967. The Evolution of Astroturf During the 50s and 60s, the Ford Foundation was studying ways to improve the physical fitness of young people. At the same time, the Chemstrand Company, a subsidiary of Monsanto Industries, were developing new synthetic fibers for use as tough carpeting. Chemstrand was encouraged to try to make the perfect urban sports surface for schools by the Ford Foundation. From 1962 to 1966, Chemstrand worked on creating new sports surfaces. The surfaces were tested for foot traction and cushioning, weather drainage, flammability and wear resistance. Chemgrass In 1964, the Creative Products Group installed a synthetic turf called Chemgrass at the Moses Brown School in Providence Rhode Island. This was the first large-scale installation of synthetic turf. In 1965, Judge Roy Hofheinz built the AstroDome in Houston, Texas. Hofheinz consulted with Monsanto about replacing the natural grass with a new synthetic playing surface. The First Astroturf In 1966, the Houston Astros baseball season begins on a Chemgrass surface now renamed Astroturf at the AstroDome. Supposedly it was renamed AstroTurf by one John A. Wortmann. The same year, the Houston Oilers AFL football season began on more than 125,000 square feet of removable Astroturf at the AstroDome. The next year, Indiana State University Stadium, in Terre Haute, Indiana became the first outdoor stadium installed with Astroturf. Astroturf Patented In 1967, Astroturf was patented (U.S. patent #3332828 see photos right). The patent for a monofilament ribbon file product was issued to inventors Wright and Faria, of Monsanto Industries. In 1986, Astroturf Industries, Inc. was formed and sold in 1994 to Southwest Recreational Industries. Former Astroturf Competitors All are no longer available. The name astroturf is a registered trademark, however, it is sometimes used incorrectly as a generic description for all artificial turf. Below are the names of a few astroturf competitors, all are no longer in business. Tartan Turf, PolyTurf, SuperTurf, WycoTurf, DurraTurf, Gras, Lectron, PoliGras, All-Pro, Cam Turf, Instant Turf, Stadia Tur, Omniturf, Toray, Unitika, Kureha, KonyGreen, Grass Sport, ClubTurf, Desso, MasterTurf, DLW

Something is rotten in Denmark Essay Example

Something is rotten in Denmark Essay Example Something is rotten in Denmark Paper Something is rotten in Denmark Paper It is highly problematic to use the word tragedy when referring to Shakespeares works. Hamlet has long been considered the best example of what one would call a tragedy out of all Shakespeares plays, yet this generalisation, as it proves to be, is the most troublesome of all. Perhaps the reason for this lies in the unknown extent of Shakespeares familiarity with what one would call traditional tragedy, whose routes lie in the principles set down by the Greeks and Aristotle. Aristotle, in setting down the so-called rules of tragedy in his Poetics talks of an essential element; Hamartia, fundamental in the downfall of the prominent (usually this prominence is reflected in a high up hierarchical figure, perhaps of the nobility)tragic hero and which, furthermore the character must recognise. This fall from grace marks a reversal of the characters fortune, placing great emphasis on an element of fate; the strumpet fortune that Hamlet so frequently refers to. Aristotle, echoing the Greek view that tragedy is didactic also talks of a fundamental element, Catharsis, at the tragic heros downfall where the audiences emotions are purged and purified. Taking this into account, the links between Shakespeares dramatic works and Greek tragedy are nevertheless unproved and tenuous. It is likely, however, that elements of tragedy would have filtered through somehow, perhaps through Latin literature, in the form of works such as Horaces Ars Poetica. In an attempt to best balance such uncertainties, it seems that one must reject Aristotle as the only guide and furthermore, in attempting to incorporate Shakespearean tragedy, all one can do is make comparisons to his other plays, which are considered to be tragedies. Hamlet can be separated from other tragedies because of the further idea, which percolates through the play, of the revenge tradition. This provides the play, at least in terms of plot with a sense of additional inevitability that Hamlet, the revenger, will get his revenge. It also places Hamlet in a situation where, because Shakespeare essentially sticks to a fundamental revenge tragedy structure regardless of his flexible and perhaps dismissive attitude towards conventions, he must nevertheless follow an unavoidable course, which is in some ways contradictory to the tragic elements of the play. Shakespeare himself alerts us to the dangers of over-classification through the words of Polonius, who ironically hits the mark in an uncanny way, contrary perhaps to both his intentions and his character, when announcing the arrival of the actors;The best actors in the world, either for tragedy, comedy, history, pastoral, pastoral-comical, historical-pastoral, tragical-historical, tragical-comical-historical-pastoral, scene individable, or poem unlimited. Seneca cannot be too heavy, nor Plautus too light Given all of these problems of definition I will explore what drives Hamlet in the play to see if this can be linked with anything else which is tragic. Hamlet, it seems, is a character caught between an old order and a new one. He finds himself adrift and unable to rely on the old certainties in a world where the stability of feudal chivalry is being replaced by one marked by trouble and uncertainty. The world Shakespeare creates is one which perhaps reflects some aspects of that which the author himself lived in and one can parallel the transformation of Hamlets surroundings with the historical movement from what many view to be the Elizabethan Golden Age, a time of order and stability, to one of rapid change. J. Donne reflects upon this phenomenon in The First Anniversary, writing; And new philosophy calls all in doubt the element of fire is quite put out. tis all in pieces, all coherence gone: all just supply and relation: Prince, subject, father, son, are things forgot Shakespeare depicts Denmark as unstable, with a new king coming to the throne and an external threat from Norway in the shape of young Fortinbras avenging his fathers loss of land. The same sense of uncertainty is noticeable within the court with the long-established hierarchical divisions threatened by the ordinary people that Claudius refers to as the distracted multitude. Hamlet himself states, Something is rotten in Denmark. Alongside this background Hamlets personal world has been greatly affected.

Post-Modernism and art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Post-Modernism and art - Essay Example Quaternity is another artwork by Anself Keifer that depicts art as a production in the post modernism era. The painting has a rough grains on the floorboards traced in various charcoal lines bleeding over a burlap canvas. There are three flames burning at the centre with each one being a member of the Christian fraternity: father, son, and the Holy Spirit. At the right hand corner, there emerges a snake that commune through the flames and it is labeled as Satan. In his sense, he labels the Christian fraternity and Satan as having a complex relationship by placing Satan equidistant from the three Christian trinities. Thus, his artwork portrays that Christianity suppressed evil. In the artwork, every trinity has a hidden fourth, which all the three combine to make a quaternity. In his brain by David sale, there is a picture of a naked woman on a bed. The image is almost pornographic. Across the canvass are tiny images of Abraham Lincoln that are taken from pennies. These images suggest cheapness and moral rectitude. The conflicting meaning in the artwork competes with each other and competes over the naked woman thus draining its pornographic content . This relays the recycling of a culture authenticated by the audience. Though pornography is prohibited in most states, the artwork tries to reveal pornography on a lighter note. Thus, most individuals are able to identify with the artwork though on a lighter note. . All the ideas and emotions expressed are only implied due to lack of.

Witnessign to Jehovah's Witnesses on the Issues of Life and Death Research Paper

Witnessign to Jehovah's Witnesses on the Issues of Life and Death Decisions - Research Paper Example Modern civilization now puts its emphasis on the respect for individuals and this includes the ideas, beliefs and ideologies of a person. For a better world to exist, this would be an ideal notion that everyone might agree with and even advocate. However, there is also the fact to be considered that there are differences among individuals that usually make it difficult for an ideal world to be had. Individuals in a family have different perspectives which usually cause misunderstandings. Likewise, individuals in organizations, fraternities or even churches have this similar problem. No matter how similar people’s beliefs are, there are always points of differences where contradictions among members occur and these should be understood and respected to achieve the old adage, ‘Live and let live.’ This paper will look into the situation of a couple who are faced with a decision considering the medical condition of the young woman as dictated by their beliefs. The wom an suffers from severe pain and abdominal cramps and is found to have ectopic pregnancy. The doctor explains the situation and the remedy and warns the couple that if the woman does not undergo the operation, blood transfusion and other procedures needed to be done, she would die. Being members of the Jehovah’s Witnesses, the couple believe that the entire procedure is entirely against their beliefs. So, the question of whether they will push through with the procedure to save the young wife’s life or not receive medical attention at all and face the sting of death, is upon their shoulders. The following discussion will offer the possible result of this decision-making the couple is to make. Blood transfusion is one of the major concerns of the Jehovah’s Witnesses’ beliefs and in fact to this day, the most debated among its beliefs. It is believed by critiques that such belief reflects their rejection of modern science and the extreme literalism of their exegesis (Horton, 2006). Witnesses prohibit members from receiving blood transfusions based on Acts 15:20 (Schmidt, 1993) so that in this view, the couple would most likely decline the idea of the operation to save the life of the woman. Spiritual beliefs could be difficult to debate about when such circumstances occur so that the medical team should be as well versed with different belief systems as they are with the technicalities of their profession. With such a weapon, they can try to convince patients to concede to whatever is needed to make an operation successful however; they should also know their limitations and boundaries so as not to desecrate what patients consider important for them. Most physicians with their educational training would desire to save a life and in the aforementioned situation, would like to save the life of the wife. A medical practitioner could probably try to convince the couple by looking closely at their basis for their belief found in Leviticus 1 7:11-14. It can be noted that the scripture prohibits men to eat blood and blood transfusion is not the same as eating. It is the desire of a loving God for His people to live in health and wellness and therefore would want the woman to live healthy and well. The same scripture claims that blood is life (NIV, 2005) that is why blood transfusion is a means of giving life to the patient. In addition, according to James Sire, the Witnesses’ argument about Acts 1520 is based on a false analogy. He agrees that blood transfusion is not the same as eating blood. He even claims that it is far different from intravenous feeding because the blood goes straight to the blood vessels and does not undergo the process food does, passing through the stomach to be processed before being distributed to the different parts of the body through the blood (Schmidt, 1993). One of the reasons that Jehovah’s Witnesses refuse blood transfusion is the fact that there have been those who underwen t blood transfusion

Great man Theory-Leadership traits Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Great man Theory-Leadership traits - Term Paper Example ording to Carlyle, certain people are born with essential qualities that differentiate them from others allowing them to assume positions of power and authority (Tulsian 94). In the great man theory, leadership is something intrinsic, which implies that people are born leaders, but not natured to become leaders (Johnson 171). The theory regards a leader as a hero who is there to accomplish anything for his followers against all odds. The theory further postulates that persons in power deserve to be there due to their peculiar endowment. In addition, the theory argues that distinctive characteristics of leaders remain stable in different groups over a prolonged period. Thus, the theory is of the opinion that all outstanding leaders share similar characteristics regardless of where and when they exercised their leadership skills (David & Frank 173). Fredrick Adams Woods who was an American scholar supported Carlyle’s work further. Wood studied the historical impact of all the great rulers in Western Europe from the 12th century up to the French revolution in the late 18th century (Johnson & Pierce 177). The fact that early influential leaders were all men inspired the use of the term great man. In addition, majority of those who researched on leadership were male researchers, which further influenced the use of the term great man. Therefore, the evolution of the great man theory never took into consideration gender issues, which created a notion that only men had the traits of distinguished leaders. However, due to the continued emergence of many distinguished women leaders, the great man theory assumed a new name of the great person theory (Nance & Timothy 412). There have been several critics who have come forward to question the applicability of the great man theory in determining who is a great leader and vice Versa (Murugan 337). The main criticism arises as a result of the set traits used to determine a great leader terming them as masculine traits. In

History Of The Frame Relay

History Of The Frame Relay Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical and data link layers of the OSI reference model. Frame Relay originally was designed for use across Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) interfaces. Today, it is used over a variety of other network interfaces as well. Frame Relay is an example of a packet-switched technology. Packet-switched networks enable end stations to dynamically share the network medium and the available bandwidth.  [1]  The following two techniques are used in packet switching technology: Variable length packets Statistical multiplexing Variable-length packets are used for more efficient and flexible data transfers. These packets are switched between the various segments in the network until the destination is reached. Statistical multiplexing techniques control network access in a packet-switched network. The advantage of this technique is that it accommodates more flexibility and more efficient use of bandwidth. Most of todays popular LANs, such as Ethernet and Token Ring, are packet-switched networks. Frame Relay often is described as a streamlined version of X.25, offering fewer of the robust capabilities, such as windowing and retransmission of last data that are offered in X.25. This is because Frame Relay typically operates over WAN facilities that offer more reliable connection services and a higher degree of reliability than the facilities available during the late 1970s and early 1980s that served as the common platforms for X.25 WANs. As mentioned earlier, Frame Relay is strictly a Layer 2 protocol suite, whereas X.25 provides services at Layer 3 (the network layer) as well. This enables Frame Relay to offer higher performance and greater transmission efficiency than X.25, and makes Fram e Relay suitable for current WAN applications, such as LAN interconnection.  [2]   History of Frame Relay Over the last decade, packet switching technology has been dominated by X.25, one of the oldest and most widely used communication transports in the world. Many sources describe frame relay as the next generation of packet switching. Frame relay derives its origins from the ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) specifications developed in the 1980s. The first contributions to the standards communities on the frame relay protocol appeared in late 1984. However, it was not until 1988 that the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Accredited Technical Committee T1 approved the initial frame relay specification. Frame relay services started to become generally available in late 1993.With the rapid evolution of reliable data communications equipment and transmission facilities, frame relay has become more and more popular as the next step in packet technology transport.  [3]   What is X.25 Protocol X.25 is an International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) protocol standard for WAN communications that defines how connections between user devices and network devices are established and maintained. X.25 network devices fall into three general categories: data terminal equipment (DTE), data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE), and packet-switching exchange (PSE). Data terminal equipment devices are end systems that communicate across the X.25 network. DCE devices are communications devices, such as modems and packet switches, which provide the interface between DTE devices and a PSE. PSEs are switches that compose the bulk of the carriers network. They transfer data from one DTE device to another through the X.25 PSN. The figure above illustrates the relationships among the three types of X.25 network devices.  [4]   X.25 versus Frame Relay Frame relay is a telecommunication service designed for cost-efficient data transmission for intermittent traffic between local area networks (LANs) and between end-points in a wide area network (WAN). Frame relay puts data in a variable-size unit called a frame and leaves any necessary error correction (retransmission of data) up to the end-points, which speeds up overall data transmission. Frame relay is provided on fractional T-1 or full T-carrier system carriers. Frame relay complements and provides a mid-range service between ISDN, which offers bandwidth at 128 Kbps, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), which operates in somewhat similar fashion to frame relay but at speeds from 155.520 Mbps or 622.080 Mbps. Frame relay is based on the older X.25 packet-switching technology which was designed for transmitting analog data such as voice conversations. Unlike X.25 which was designed for analog signals, frame relay is a fast packet technology, which means that the protocol does not attempt to correct errors. When an error is detected in a frame, it is simply dropped. (thrown away). The end points are responsible for detecting and retransmitting dropped frames. (However, the incidence of error in digital networks is extraordinarily small relative to analog networks.) Frame relay is often used to connect local area networks with major backbones as well as on public wide area networks and also in private network environments with leased lines over T-1 lines. It requires a dedicated connection during the transmission period. Its not ideally suited for voice or video transmission, which requires a steady flow of transmissions. However, under certain circumstances, it is used for voice and video t ransmission. Frame relay transmits packets at the data link layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model rather than at the Network layer. A frame can incorporate packets from different protocols such as Ethernet and X.25. It is variable in size and can be as large as a thousand bytes or more. Frame relay relies on the customer equipment to perform end to end error correction. Each switch inside a frame relay network just relays the data (frame) to the next switch. X.25, in contrast, performs error correction from switch to switch. The networks of today are sufficiently error free to move the burden of error correction to the end points. Most modern protocols such as SDLC, HDLC, TCP/IP, stat mux protocols do that anyway.  [5]   How Frame Relay Works When looking into frame relay, most people raise the following question: How can one router with a single direct link into a frame relay network establish connection with multiple routers or CPEs? To answer this question, lets first define some terms. The discussion following these definitions will give you a better understanding of how PVCs, DLCIs and LMI function together to enable and manage frame relay links to other routers. PVC Permanent Virtual Circuits are one example of connection-oriented service. Most protocols operate in connection-oriented mode. This makes more efficient use of the circuit by bringing down the link when not in use. DLCI the Data Link Connection Identifier distinguishes separate virtual circuits across each access connection. It allows the frame (packet) to be routed to the correct destination within a frame relay network. This is similar to X.25 implementation of the LAP-D core protocol functions. Frame Relay Packet Format Like other bit-synchronous protocols, frame relay uses a frame or packet structure as the basis for transmission. The frame format used by frame relay is based on Link Access Protocol for ISDN-D channels, which defines the functions for the OSI Data-link layer. (The frame structure for frame relay is derived from the high-level data link control or HDLC procedure.) Frame relay was originally defined by the CCITT as a network service within the framework of ISDN. Because hardware already provided support of ISDN, using the derivative of the LAP-D protocol cuts down on protocol implementation and the need to change hardware. Structure of a frame relay Packet. Explanation of Packet. The fields in the frame relay packet are as follows: The Flag fields delimit where the data frame begins and ends.The Frame Relay Header contains the DLCI, the FECN and BECN bits, and other information (see the Operation section for a description of how the header is used).The Information field holds the actual data being transmitted (the payload). It can hold from 262 to 1600 or more octets (equivalent to a byte). The FCS (Frame Check Sequence) is an error checking field. Frame relay uses a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). If Frame Relay detects an error here, it drops the frame. The Network-layer protocol must request a retransmission. The DLCI fields in the frame relay. The fields in the frame relay address header contain the Data Link Connection Identifier, described earlier. These fields can store two octets containing a 10-bit DLCI.The EA (Extended Address) bits make it possible to extend the header field to support DLCI addresses of more than 10 bits. The FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification) bit may be used to notify the user that congestion was experienced in the direction of the frame carrying the FECN indication. The BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification) bit may be used to notify the user that congestion was experienced in the opposite direction of the frame carrying the FECN indication. The C/R field in the header contains Command/Response information. These bits relate to congestion information stored if the network is experiencing congestion because several data sources are contending for the same bandwidth. The DE (Discard Eligibility) bit allows the network to determine which fram es may be discarded under congestion situations. Example of how DLCI addresses are used in sending packets across a frame relay network. When the network becomes congested to the point that it cannot process new data transmissions, it begins to discard frames. These discarded frames are retransmitted, thus causing more congestion. In an effort to prevent this situation, several mechanisms have been developed to notify user devices at the onset of congestion, so that the offered load may be reduced. Two bits in the Frame Relay header are used to signal the user device that congestion is occurring on the line: They are the Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN) bit and the Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN) bit. The FECN is changed to 1 as a frame is sent downstream toward the destination location when congestion occurs during data transmission. In this way, all downstream nodes and the attached user device learn about congestion on the line. The BECN is changed to 1 in a frame traveling back toward the source of data transmission on a path where congestion is occurring. Thus the source node is no tified to slow down transmission until congestion subsided. Frame relay places the responsibility of ensuring data delivery on the end-point devices that are operating with multi-level protocols. End-points can be devices such as networks, workstations, and hosts. To ensure that all packets have been received, the Transport layer (layer 4) of the OSI model places a sequence number on the frames that are sent. As with X.25, this functionality is performed in the Data-link layer. Special management frames, with a unique DLCI address, can be passed between the network and the access device. These frames monitor the status of the link and indicate whether the link is active or inactive. They can also pass information regarding status of the PVC and DLCI changes. This frame relay management protocol is referred to as the Local Management Interface (LMI). Its function is to provide information about PVC status. Originally, the frame relay specification did not provide for this kind of status. Since then, a method for LMI has been developed and has been incorporated into the ANSI and CCITT standards. Advantages of Frame Relay The main advantage of Frame Relay over point-to-point leased lines is cost. Frame Relay can provide performance similar to that of a leased line, but with significantly less cost over long distances. The reason is the customer only has to make a dedicated point-to-point connection to the providers nearest frame switch. From there the data travels over the providers shared network. The price of leased lines generally increases based on distance. So, this short-haul point-to-point connection is significantly less expensive than making a dedicated point-to-point connection over a long distance. The three main areas in which frame relay demonstrates significant advantages over other WAN protocols are: Reduced internetworking costs (in both hardware and carrier tariffs) Increased performance with reduced network complexity Increased interoperability via international standards Increased Performance with Reduced Network Complexity. Frame relay reduces the complexity of the physical network without disrupting higher-level network functions. Frame Relay functions using only the bottom two layers of the OSI model, as compared to X.25 which includes the Network layer. By reducing the amount of processing required, and by efficiently using high-speed digital transmission lines, frame relay can improve performance and response times for most applications. Disadvantages of Frame Relay Although frame relay has many advantages, there are two areas within frame relay that can promote potential problems: congestion control and frame discard. Congestion Control. As with most WAN services, without careful design, a frame relay network can quickly become congested. When frames are being sent beyond the agreed CIR,(Committed Information Rate) there is eligibility for discarding frames due to congestion. Frame Discard. When a problem is experienced with a single frame, frame relay simply ignores the problem and discards the frame. If a large number of problems occur, a significant number of frames are discarded and the end user system must recover from the situation. These errors cause retransmissions, thus placing additional bandwidth demands on the frame relay network. ANSI applied specifications for Congestion Notification Mechanisms to allow frame relay devices to indicate the existence of congestion in the network. In the frame relay packet header, two bits are used for explicit congestion notification: Forward explicit congestion notification (FECN) Backward explicit congestion notification (BECN) When a node on the network approaches a congestion condition caused by a temporary peak in traffic, the node detects the onset of congestion and signals all the downstream nodes. All attached devices learn that congestion has occurred and minimize until the network traffic subsides, as shown in the Figure below. The FECN and BECN bits can be used for congestion control in a frame relay network. In the case of traffic going in one direction (that is, from Florida to California), frame relay standards prohibit the network from generating any frames with the DLCI (Data Link Control Identifier) of a particular virtual circuit causing the traffic. Therefore, the congestion notification must wait for traffic in the reverse direction. Frame Relay Applications The most popular frame relay application provides companies with local area network (LAN) to LAN communication. This allows companies to integrate their information systems in order to have employees throughout the enterprise to access specific information residing on a LAN somewhere in the enterprise. The devices on the LANs can communicate over the frame relay network regardless of their native protocol. For example, native protocols that can traverse frame relay networks include SNA, DECnet, IPX, TCP/IP, and AppleTalk. Therefore, frame relay has the ability to make the users perceive that the entire company is on one large LAN. Application software such as groupware, e-mail, document sharing, database and many other LAN applications can utilize frame relay technology. Companies are also integrating communication for legacy systems, such as SNA, onto frame relay networks (Thyfault, 1995B). This allows companies to connect devices such as cluster controllers and front-end processors directly to FRADs in order to use the frame relay network for communications. Frame relays ability to support both the legacy applications and LAN applications provides an excellent backbone for those companies that are in the process of migrating their information systems from centralized mainframe processing to distributed client/server systems. Companies can turn up legacy applications on the frame relay network and slowly migrate the LAN applications as they are developed. Conclusion Frame relay is a simplified form of packet-mode switching, optimized for transporting todays protocol-oriented data. The result of this simplification is that frame relay offers higher throughput, while still retaining the bandwidth and equipment efficiencies that come from having multiple virtual circuits share a single port and transmission facility. Thus, the use of frame relay can: Reduce the cost of transmission facilities and equipment Provide increased performance, reliability, and application response time Increase interoperability through well-defined international standards A major reason for the high level of interest in frame relay is that it is a technology that has been developed in response to a clear market need. With the proliferation of powerful end-point devices (such as PCS and workstations) operating with intelligent protocols (such a TCP/IP, XNS and DECnet), users are seeking WAN communication methods that offer higher throughput and more cost-effective use of digital transmission lines. With that need in mind, frame relay has been developed and standardized to have precisely the combination of characteristics needed by todays corporate networks. Coupled with the NetWare MultiProtocol Router, frame relay provides customers a flexible, highly manageable solution at a reasonable cost. Frame relay is just one of many WAN alternatives available. Given the right planning, it will provide users with efficient high-bandwidth connectivity now and into the future. Endnotes

Artificial Intelligence Essay -- Essays Papers

Artificial Intelligence1 Artificial Intelligence (AI) conjures up visions of robots that can mix dry martinis while beating a grand master at chess; and to some, will one day be able to look, act, think and react just like a real person. I would like to explore the concept of AI as it relates to the business world, and its possible many other applications. I believe that true AI is a dream worth pursuing. Like me, there are many who, just like those of the early 1960’s, thought that putting a man on the moon seemed to be an extremely difficult, but not an impossible task, believing the achievement of true AI to come is just a matter of time. To remain competitive, companies must continue to improve by doing better and doing more; all the while using fewer and fewer resources, especially, manpower. Greater numbers of the world’s companies are turning to systems, which they feel offer the best means of attaining these goals. A group, or suite of tools that can help accomplish this pursuit of doing less with more is generally known as Decision Support Systems. This broad category usually consists of computer software and hardware, which includes Intelligent Decision Support Systems, Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence. Do these systems really provide a valuable contribution to those who use them, and just how much faith can be put into them? Strategic decision making concerns itself with determining where and how to deploy present resources to gain competitive advantages with the expectation of achieving some future reward. This simple, but powerful idea, permeates the planning process of large and small companies. Decisions related to how resources should be deployed consider specific measures necessary to compete effectively and efficiently; while strategic decisions are made with the expectation of improving future corporate profitability. Decision support systems are important additions in developing long term strategic plans, and thus long range profitability measures. Definition ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Before we can explore the possibilities and implications of AI, we must carefully define exactly what attributes make something â€Å"intelligent†. The most common way to define intelligence in through the term â€Å"consciousness†. A term such as this has no fixed definition; rather, it is a family of related concepts that ti... ...u/~grassie/StudentProjects/Debicella.html Guven Guzeldere & Stefano Franchi, mindless mechanisms, mindful construction – an introduction – (4 June 1995),Unided States: shr.stanford.edu/shreview/4-2/text/introduction.html R.L. Hughey, Jr, Expert Systems in Manufacturing, (3 May 1996). Carrollton Ga: www.southwire.com/sw/techlib/ieee0002.htm Henry Linger, Intelligent Decision Support in the Context of the Modern Organisation – (1997), Monash University, Melbourne Australia: inforge.unil.ch/isdss97/papers/84.htm Daniel E. O’Leary, Artificial Intelligence in Business - (17 December 1994). University of Southern Ca: www.bus.orst.edu/faculty/brownc/es_tutor/bus-ai.htm Otis Porter, Dueling Brainscapes in Artificial Intelligence – (1997), Austin Tx: www.businessweek.com/1997/25/b353210.htm Lynda Radosevich, AI Wises Up – Artificial intelligence has made the transistion from fuzzy-headed fad to real-world application – (3 August 1998), United States: www.infoworld.com/cgi-bin/displayStory.pl?/features/980803ai.htm Cosmin Radu, What is an Expert Systems – unknown, United States: www.cs.umr.edu/~caradu/fuzzy/node3.html World Book Encyclopedia, (1999) CD Form.